DIGITAL INEQUALITY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA

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Abstract

Digital technology now shapes education, employment, healthcare, banking, welfare delivery, communication and political participation in India. Yet the rapid spread of smartphones and internet subscriptions has not produced equal digital participation. Access varies according to income, caste, gender, education, age and location, while household connectivity often conceals differences in personal ownership, privacy and autonomy. This paper examines digital inequality as a form of social stratification. It uses secondary data from national surveys, government reports and peer-reviewed studies, interpreted through the theories of Bourdieu, Weber, Castells, Sen and intersectionality. The results show that women, especially rural women, experience lower mobile ownership and internet use than men; rural users rely heavily on mobile connections; and disadvantaged caste and class groups face cumulative barriers arising from low income, weaker education and limited institutional support. Digital inequality is therefore not merely a technological gap but a contemporary expression of historically rooted social exclusion. The paper recommends affordable connectivity, individual device access, advanced digital literacy, regional-language content, accessible public services, cybersecurity education and reliable offline alternatives. Meaningful inclusion should be measured through improved life chances rather than subscription numbers alone.

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